Punishment Philosophies - 1704 Words

Punishment Philosophies Abstract The processes by which justice is applied are determined largely by proposed punishment philosophies. These express various concerns and arguments regarding appropriate sentencing and treatment. The philosophy of rehabilitation dominates the proceedings of juvenile courts, and is heavily scrutinized at an adult level, or when the criminal behavior of juveniles continues to accelerate, but when successful is most beneficial for society. The appeals process advances the fair practice of law, helps ensure the rights of due process, and continues to clarify and define justice and the law. Punishment Philosophies†¦show more content†¦One of the most widely applicable philosophies is deterrence, which is the concept that the threat of punishment should prevent criminal activity. Deterrence can be experienced in one of two ways; the first is specific deterrence, which occurs when an offender becomes less likely to reoffend as a result of punishment that he or she has u ndergone, while the second, more preferable form is through general deterrence, by which individuals abstain from criminal activity due to the recognition that others have been correspondingly punished. The psychological effectiveness of deterrence largely depends upon three factors: Celerity, severity, and certainty. The celerity, or swiftness with which punishment is imposed, is critical in the sense that individuals are inherently less likely to be concerned with negative consequences that will be experienced at a more distant time. Essentially, the immediate benefit of a crime is perceived to be more real than those future consequences. Related to this is the certainty or likelihood of punishment; if types of crimes are perceived to go largely undetected or unpunished, the potential deterrence is diminished.Show MoreRelatedAssignment: Punishment Philosophy Paper691 Words   |  3 PagesAssignment: Punishment Philosophy Paper There are five punishment philosophies used in the criminal justice system, deterrence, rehabilitation, incapacitation, retribution, and restoration. (Meyer amp; Grant, 2003) The goal of each philosophy is to prevent criminal offenses from occurring. The first philosophy is deterrence, this philosophy tries to convince people not to commit crimes or violate laws. When a person decides not to do something like parking in a handicapped spaceRead MoreThe Philosophy Of Crime And Punishment1182 Words   |  5 PagesThe Philosophy of Puppetry in Crime and Punishment Consider the design of a puppet. When observing this structure, one will give attention to the source of the puppet’s actions being dictated by the puppeteer. These actions are able to be transmitted from the will of the puppeteer into the puppet through the strings that the puppeteer uses to control specific parts of the puppet. Furthermore, one can infer that the strings of the puppet are the motive behind the puppet’s action. If the puppet’s actionsRead MorePhilosophy of Punishment: Deterrence General and Specific1084 Words   |  5 PagesPhilosophy of Punishment: Deterrence General and Specific Sentencing Model: Indeterminate Sentencing For the philosophy of punishment I chose deterrence, specifically because of the goals and benefit this philosophy. The deterrence punishment is divided in to two separate categories. First on is the general deterrence, the goal of general deterrence is to prevent non-offenders (those who’ve not committed a crime) from committing crimes by exposing non-offenders to the realityRead MorePhilosophies In Fyodor Dostoevskys Crime And Punishment1095 Words   |  5 PagesFor a recent reading assignment our english class was introduced to the master-work that is Fyodor Dostoevsky’s Crime and Punishment. Set in 1860s Saint Petersburg Russia, Dostoevsky goes to great lengths to describe his dark and decrepit world in which his characters to inhabit. The events of an axe murder and eventual redemption could have taken place in any setting, but Dostoevsky on the contrary chose this specific time in which to make his commentary on society. Many of the characters of the Read MorePunishment and Sentencing Paper1278 Words   |  6 PagesPunishment and Sentencing Paper CJA/224 Garrett LeGrange September 17, 2010 There are many different philosophies that are in use in the court systems when determining what sort of punishment will be imposed on someone who is found guilty of committing a crime. These philosophies are in use in both the adult courts and juvenile courts. The juvenile court system is similar to the adult courts, but there are many differences between the two. Both court systems try and keep crime from happeningRead MoreCriminal Punishment And The Criminal Justice System1193 Words   |  5 Pagesrevolution in criminal punishment processes. A number of different sentencing reforms have been recently expanded, resulting in a mix of different legal approaches to sentencing in the United States today. I will begin with a brief overview of sentencing philosophies, followed by modern sentencing innovations. Then, I will discuss research evidence regarding social inequalities in punishments before closing with a discussion of uncertain issues in modern research on criminal punishment in the 21st centuryRead MoreLet the Punishment Fit the Crime in the State of California1301 Words   |  6 PagesThe Punishment After having been arrested and charged with the killing of my children’s father, I was subsequently convicted of first degree murder, PC §187a (CA Codes). The sentencing guidelines, here in California, require a judge to adhere to PC §190a which states that, â€Å"Every person guilty of murder in the first degree shall be punished by death, imprisonment in the state prison for life without the possibility of parole, or imprisonment in the state prison for a term of 25 years to life (CARead MoreThe Theory Of Rehabilitating Fender Shifted Into Focus More1212 Words   |  5 Pagesthe state endeavors to rehabilitate, it is attempting to mold the individual to conform to the general morals of society. The three philosophical approaches to the justification of punishment have each shown to have merit as well as flaws. I will now move on to providing my proposed resolution to the issue of punishment. The overarching theme amongst these three theories is that each attempts to safeguard society. Retribution attempts to achieve this by appealing to the general call of the communityRead MoreThe Classical School Of Criminology1174 Words   |  5 PagesDuring the Enlightenment period, Cesare Beccaria developed the Classical School of Criminology with help from philosopher Jeremy Bentham. With the similar philosophies of Beccaria and Bentham, the classical theory of criminology was then developed, creating a strict and proportional criminal justice system. Deriving from the Rational Choice Theory, the classical theory of criminology states that rational behavior can be controlled in order to deter criminal activity. This idea comes from the thoughtRead MoreThe Utilitarian Reasoning Of An Unbiased Manner1167 Words   |  5 Pagesutilitarianism explain or justify societal punishment? According to Murtagh (n.d.), punishment involves the deliberate infliction of suffering on a supposed or actual offender for an offense such as a moral or legal transgression. Utilitarians attempt to justify punishment in terms of balance of good over evil produced and thus focus their attention on extrinsic or consequentialist considerations (Murtagh, n.d.). When attempting to determine whether a punishment is justifiable, utilitarians will attempt

E-Commerce in East Africa Free Essays

Table of Contents Definition and background2 Reasons for growth of e-commerce in East Africa. 4 Influence of e-commerce on trading practices in East Africa. 5 Types of e-commerce8 Challenges facing the growth of e-commerce in East Africa. We will write a custom essay sample on E-Commerce in East Africa or any similar topic only for you Order Now 9 1. Poor infrastructure9 Computer illiteracy9 Lack of proper regulation9 Inadequate capital10 Inadequate personnel10 Conclusion10 References11 Definition and background E-commerce refers to business conducted through the use of computers, telephones, fax machines, barcode readers, credit cards, automated teller machines (ATM) or other electronic appliances (whether or not using the internet) without the exchange of paper-based documents. It includes activities such as procurement, order entry, transaction processing, payment, authentication and non-repudiation, inventory control, order fulfillment, and customer support. When a buyer pays with a bank card swiped through a magnetic-stripe-reader, he or she is participating in e-commerce. | It mainly involves the buying and selling of products or services over electronic systems such as the Internet and other computer networks. Electronic commerce draws on such technologies as electronic funds transfer, supply chain management, Internet marketing, online transaction processing, electronic data interchange (EDI), inventory management systems, and automated data collection systems. Modern electronic commerce typically uses the World Wide Web at least at one point in the transaction’s life-cycle, although it may encompass a wider range of technologies such as e-mail, mobile devices and telephones as well. Originally, electronic commerce was identified as the facilitation of commercial transactions electronically, using technology such as Electronic Data Interchange (EDI) and Electronic Funds Transfer (EFT). These were both introduced in the late 1970s, allowing businesses to send commercial documents like purchase orders or invoices electronically. The growth and acceptance of credit cards, automated teller machines (ATM) and telephone banking in the 1980s were also forms of electronic commerce. Another form of e-commerce was the airline reservation system typified by Sabre in the USA and Travicom in the UK. Electronic commerce or ecommerce is a term for any type of business, or commercial transaction that involves the transfer of information across the Internet. It covers a range of different types of businesses, from consumer based retail sites, through auction or music sites, to business exchanges trading goods and services between corporations. It is currently one of the most important aspects of the Internet to emerge. Ecommerce allows consumers to electronically exchange goods and services with no barriers of time or distance. Electronic commerce has expanded rapidly over the past five years and is predicted to continue at this rate, or even accelerate. In the near future the boundaries between â€Å"conventional† and â€Å"electronic† commerce will become increasingly blurred as more and more businesses move sections of their operations onto the Internet. Business to Business or B2B refers to electronic commerce between businesses rather than between a business and a consumer. B2B businesses often deal with hundreds or even thousands of other businesses, either as customers or suppliers. Carrying out these transactions electronically provides vast competitive advantages over traditional methods. When implemented properly, ecommerce is often faster, cheaper and more convenient than the traditional methods of bartering goods and services. Electronic transactions have been around for quite some time in the form of Electronic Data Interchange or EDI. EDI requires each supplier and customer to set up a dedicated data link (between them), where ecommerce provides a cost-effective method for companies to set up multiple, and ad-hoc links. Electronic commerce has also led to the development of electronic marketplaces where suppliers and potential customers are brought together to conduct mutually beneficial trade. Just like the rest of the world, East Africa hasn’t been left behind in adopting e-commerce as a way of doing business. Many individuals, corporations and even governments have resolved to using e-commerce in consummating their business transactions, albeit on a smaller margin as compared to western countries or the more developed world economies. Countries in east Africa, that is Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania have all been taking steps in the recent past to ensure that trade among them grows as a way of boosting the economic growth of these countries. One of the steps has clearly been adopting the use of e-commerce. Relevant infrastructure has been or is being established to back up this adoption. Since e-commerce ideally is all about the internet, most of the infrastructure I am referring to involves it in way or another. Most notably has been the laying of the fiber optic cable from the coast of Kenya towards the inland that allows for high speed internet access. Reasons for growth of e-commerce in East Africa. The rapid growth of e-commerce since 1995 is due to the unique features of the Internet and the Web as a commercial medium: * Ubiquity: Internet/Web technology is everywhere, at work, home, and elsewhere, and anytime, providing a ubiquitous market space, a marketplace removed from a temporal and geographical location. * Global reach: The technology reaches across national boundaries. Universal standards: There is one set of Internet technology standards, which greatly lower market entry costs (the costs to bring goods to market) and reduce search costs (the effort to find products) for the consumer. * Richness: Information richness refers to the complexity and content of a message. Internet technology allows for rich video, audio, and text messages to be delivered to large numbers of people. * Interactivity: The technology works through interaction with the user. * Information density: Information density is the total amount and quality of information available to all market participants. Internet technology reduces information costs and raises quality of information, enabling price transparency (the ease for consumers of finding a variety of prices) and cost transparency (the ability of consumers to determine the actual costs of products). Information density allows merchants to engage in price discrimination (selling goods to targeted groups at different prices). * Personalization/customization: E-commerce technologies permit personalization (targeting personal messages to consumers) and customization (changing a product or service based on consumer preference or history. Influence of e-commerce on trading practices in East Africa. As it has already been established, e-commerce is being used, even though not so widely in East Africa. The firms or organizations that have decided to employ e-commerce are benefiting from it in the following ways: 1. Exploitation of New Business Broadly speaking, electronic commerce emphasizes the generation and exploitation of new . business opportunities and to use popular phrases: â€Å"generate business value† or â€Å"do more with less† Safaricom, mobile service provider has the m-pesa service that captured so many customers and helped many people establish new businesses. There is also the m-kesho service which is a joint venture between Safaricom and Equity Bank that has enabled many small business owners and individuals to access banking services. 2. Enabling the Customers Electronic Commerce is enabling the customer to have an increasing say in what products are made, how products are made and how services are delivered (movement from a slow order fulfillment process with little understanding of what is taking place inside the firm, to a faster and rt1ore open process with customers having greater control. . Improvement of Business Transaction Electronic Commerce endeavors to improve the execution of business transaction over various networks. 4. Effective Performance It leads to more effective performance i. e. better quality, greater customer satisfaction and better corporate decision making. 5. Greater Economic Efficiency We may achieve greater economic efficiency (lower cost) and more rapid exchange (high speed, accelerated, or real-time intera ction) with the help of electronic commerce. 6. Execution of Information It enables the execution of information-laden transactions between two ore more parties using inter connected networks. These networks can be a combination of ‘plain old telephone system’ (POTS), Cable TV, leased lines and wireless. Information based transactions are creating new ways of doing business and even new types of business. 7. Incorporating Transaction Electronic Commerce also inco11’orates transaction management, which organizes, routes, processes and tracks transactions. It also includes consumers making electronic payments and funds transfers. 8. Increasing of Revenue Firm use technology to either lower operating costs or increase revenue. Electronic Commerce has the Potential to increase revenue by creating new markets for old products, creating new information-based products, and establishing new service delivery channels to better serve and interact with customers. The transaction management aspect of electronic commerce can also enable firms to reduce operating costs by enabling better coordination in the sales, production and distribution processes and to consolidate operations arid reduce overhead. . Reduction of Friction Electronic Commerce research and its associated implementations is to reduce the â€Å"friction† in on line transactions frictions is often described in economics as transaction cost. It can arise from inefficient market structures and inefficient combinations of the technological activities required to make a transaction. Ultimately, the reduction of friction in online commerce will enable smoo ther transaction between buyers, intermediaries and sellers. 10. Facilitating of Network Form Electronic Commerce is also impacting business . o business interactions. It facilitates the network form of organization where small flexible firms rely on other partner, companies for component supplies and product distribution to meet changing customer demand more effectively. Hence, an end to end relationship management solution is a desirable goal that is needed to manage the chain of networks linking customers, workers, suppliers, distributors and even competitors. The management of â€Å"online transactions† in the supply chain assumes a central roll. 11. Facilitating for Organizational Model It is facilitating an organizational model that is fundamentally different from the past. It is a control organization to the information based organization. The emerging forms of techno-organizational structure involve changes in managerial responsibilities, communication and information flows and work group structure. Types of e-commerce Business-to-business (B2B) Business that sells products or provides services to other businesses. Business-to-consumer (B2C) Business that sells products or provides services to end-user consumers. Consumer-to-consumer (C2C) Consumers sell directly to other consumers. Business-to-government (B2G) Government buys or provides goods, services or information to/from businesses or individual citizens. Business-to-employee (B2E) Information and services made available to employees online. Mobile commerce (m-commerce) E-commerce transactions and activities conducted in a wireless environment. Collaborative commerce (c-commerce) Individuals or groups communicate or collaborate online. Challenges facing the growth of e-commerce in East Africa. . Poor infrastructure. Many consumers and businesses in the east African region are not able to access internet services due to poor access of the internet and online services in general. This makes it difficult for them to transact through the internet and hence e-commerce has not been able to grow at a reasonable rate. This poor internet access can be attributed to the poor infrastructure currently being used in the region. Modern high performan ce network equipment has to be installed for e-commerce to grow as expected. Computer illiteracy Many individuals in the east African region do not have access to computers and those who might have access do not know how to use them. This has largely affected the growth of e-commerce since computers are an integral part of the online business. This is why many online transactions in the region are usually done by way of mobile phones which again aren’t that accessible to the common citizenry. Lack of proper regulation The internet is largely unregulated. Many businesses and individuals lose their money to unscrupulous and fraudulent business people who take advantage of the lack of proper rules and regulations to play foul. The situation is even worse in east Africa and many businesses are losing money hindering their expansion and the industry in general. Inadequate capital Investment in the equipment and manpower required to run online business is very expensive and most firms cannot afford it. Computers, database managers, hard drives, software and software managers are all needed to keep on online system running. Administration of such systems is also very expensive and it needs regular updating and upgrading. Inadequate personnel Many firms in east Africa do not have the expertise needed to run these e-commerce systems. The curriculum in schools and higher learning institutions do not offer adequate skills. Expertise has to be imported from the rest of the world to complement the little that we have. This makes it so expensive to run online businesses. Conclusion Even though it has taken so long for e-commerce to be integrated into the business world in east Africa, it is finally here and it is being appreciated by those who are willing to adopt it. The governments of the countries in the region are doing a lot of investment in the required infrastructure to see to it that internet is accessed widely and cheaply. Investors from other countries have also realized that this east African region holds a lot of potential and are willing to invest their money to boost online trading establishments. There are still many challenges that need to be surmounted and e-commerce has gotten to its feet fully, but with the measures being taken by the governments, the private sector and many other stakeholders in the information technology sector, it is only a matter of time before e-commerce becomes fully operative in the region. This will present a lot of opportunities that will help improve the standards of living in the region. References * www. ecommerce-land. com * www. ihub. co. ke * The Economics of M-Pesa, William Jack and Tavneet Suri, 2nd Edition, August 2010 * www. kcbbankgroup. com * www. imbank. com * The Smart Company, The Daily Nation, 17th July 2012 page 8-9 How to cite E-Commerce in East Africa, Papers

Art Of Portraiture Essay Example For Students

Art Of Portraiture Essay The three works that I chose that are art of portraiture are Head of a King, Mask of an Lyoba, and Mother Goddess. The first two portraits are West African Art from two different tribes, Ife, who created the Head of a King and Benin, whom created the Mask of an Lyoba. The Mother Goddess is an Aztec piece. These groups of people are from different cultures, time periods, and share different religious beliefs. The similarity of the groups is the symbolic meaning the portraitures brought to its people. The first work is the Head of a King. This Ife creation altered the perception that scholars had of the tribe. It was known that the Ife tribes did not do portraits because of the spirits that could harm the subjects. The sculptures that were discovered all seemed to resemble rulers, so the conclusion was that the institution of kingship and the need to revere royal ancestors were strong enough to overcome concerns. Also the figures were naturalistic. The proportions of the few knownful figures are characteristically African.. The heads may have been taken from life models, but seem more like idealized images. An example is of the proportions of the head of the sculpture. These proportions probably reflect a belief in the heads importance as the abode of the spirit, and the focus of the individual identity. Life is the sacred city of the Yoruba people, were naturalistic sculpture began. The Benin tribe arose after the Ife, and was greatly influenced by their art. Their portraits were also naturalistic, but as they grew more knowledgeable in art, they drew away from the naturalistic works of the Ife people into stylized works of their own. The Mask of an Lyoba is a beautiful ornamental mask of royalty. This works shows that the people no longer use the naturalistic approach, but a bold, more idealized, representation of its people. The art of Benin is a royal art, only the oba could commission the works. This work was commissioned in ivory, but most of the works were commissioned in brass. The Benin transition from naturalistic to stylize is better explained in the brass heads. It ranges from small, thinly cast, and naturalistic to large, thickly cast, and highly stylized. The conclusion of scholars is that in their Early Period, their heads were small and naturalistic from the Ife influence. Heads then grew increasingly stylized during the Middle Period. Then in the Late Period, the heads were very large and heavy, with angular stylized features and an elaborate beaded crown. In Mexico there was also portraitures. Specifically in the Aztec Empire were the Mother Goddess was created. This was a strong and powerful empire that was divided in classes. The religion was based on a complex pantheon that combined the Aztec deities with more ancient ones that had long been worshiped in Central Mexico. According to the Aztec belief, the gods created the current universe at the ancient city of Teothhuacan. Which is similar to the Ife belief that Gods came down and created the people. The culture and purpose of the people is then to worship and honor their gods forever. This was done by sacrifice and in their art. We are aware of the religion and the beliefs of the Aztec people because of their art. The gods were represented in statues and paintings that were narratives to teach their people and show respect to the gods. The Mother Goddess was a broad shouldered figure with clawed hands and feet has a skirt of twisted snakes. A pair of serpents, symbols of gushing blood, rise from her neck to form her head. Their eyes are her eyes; their fangs, her tusks. The writhing serpents of her skirt also form her body. Around her stump of a neck hangs a necklace of sacrificial offerings- hands, heart, and a dangling skull. .u1bef6b597f94eee8bcfc903ebcb43e9d , .u1bef6b597f94eee8bcfc903ebcb43e9d .postImageUrl , .u1bef6b597f94eee8bcfc903ebcb43e9d .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u1bef6b597f94eee8bcfc903ebcb43e9d , .u1bef6b597f94eee8bcfc903ebcb43e9d:hover , .u1bef6b597f94eee8bcfc903ebcb43e9d:visited , .u1bef6b597f94eee8bcfc903ebcb43e9d:active { border:0!important; } .u1bef6b597f94eee8bcfc903ebcb43e9d .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u1bef6b597f94eee8bcfc903ebcb43e9d { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u1bef6b597f94eee8bcfc903ebcb43e9d:active , .u1bef6b597f94eee8bcfc903ebcb43e9d:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u1bef6b597f94eee8bcfc903ebcb43e9d .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u1bef6b597f94eee8bcfc903ebcb43e9d .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u1bef6b597f94eee8bcfc903ebcb43e9d .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u1bef6b597f94eee8bcfc903ebcb43e9d .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u1bef6b597f94eee8bcfc903ebcb43e9d:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u1bef6b597f94eee8bcfc903ebcb43e9d .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u1bef6b597f94eee8bcfc903ebcb43e9d .u1bef6b597f94eee8bcfc903ebcb43e9d-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u1bef6b597f94eee8bcfc903ebcb43e9d:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Al GORE for President EssayDespite the surface intricacy, the sculptures simple, bold, and blocky forms create a single visual whole. This dramatic impact was also heightened by the color. This portraiture is very symbolic. Unlike the previous two works it is not of the rulers or the people at the time, it is of a god. But much like the first two works it is also idealized. This is what their mother god that guides them should look like. The Ife people created works that were spiritual and revealing their groups identity. The Benin people, once understanding art created stylized works that also expressed their identity, far more than anything naturalistic did. All three works represents the people and what is important to them. For the Aztec people it was their gods, and representing them in a dramatic and powerful way to teach their people. While the Ife people believed that the gods created them in likeness to themselves, so the portraits were also of their people in the ideal form that the gods wanted. The Benin culture were fascinated by art, and wanted to show respect to their rulers by their representation of them.

Optical Illusions Essays - Brain, Cerebrum, Neuroanatomy

Optical Illusions My research paper is about the anatomy of an optical illusion. Optical Illusions are relevant to aviation in that the main guidance system of most aircraft on most flights is the pilot's eyes. Everyone, including pilots, is susceptible to an optical illusion. The hazards of optical illusions are many considering that at any time during the flight they can cause a healthy and experienced pilot to become confused, delusional and generally disoriented with obvious possible consequences. This is why we must study and be aware of optical illusions so that we may be better prepared should we encounter one at a critical time. To better illustrate the origins of optical illusions I will review some parts of the brain and their functions. The brain has seven main parts, they are: the thalamus, the hypothalamus, the cerebellum, the brain stem, the corpus callosum, the two hemispheres, and the largest part of the brain, the cerebrum. The thalamus is located just above the brain stem. It acts like a switchboard, deciding what to do with the messages that come to the brain. If you were reacting to a situation like flying in a dogfight, and radio chatter was coming through your headphones, your thalamus would ignore the radio chatter. The hypothalamus controls our emotions such as happiness and sadness. It also controls our sense of temperature and our feeling of hunger. It is located directly in front of the thalamus. It is also one of the organs that is fully developed when you are born. The cerebellum is the part of the brain that controls our muscles. When we are born, our cerebellums aren't fully developed. That's why we didn't do things in a coordinated manner with our limbs. We moved shakily with our bodies because messages from another part of our brain called the cerebrum weren't organized by the cerebellum. The brain stem is located at the back of the brain, right below the thalamus. It has the responsibility of taking care of involuntary movements such as breathing, blinking, and making our heart beat. The cerebrum is the largest part of our brain. It takes care of our motor skills such as speaking, walking, and writing. These skills are operated in the outside layer of the brain, called the cortex. It is the last part of the brain to develop and is unique only in humans. The cerebrum is divided into two halves, or hemispheres. Our major learning senses are located within the two hemispheres. The corpus callosum is the connector for the two hemispheres of the brain and sends messages between the hemispheres. Your corpus callosum is able to send about twenty messages per second and routes them to various nerve cells called neurons. The brain receives messages through these neurons. Scientists believe that for every ten billion cells in the body, one billion of them are neurons. Can you see a square? Scientists at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology discovered that an area of the brain previously thought to process only simple visual information also tackles complex images such as optical illusions. Research, conducted with animals, provided evidence that both the simple and more complex areas of the brain are involved in different aspects of vision and work cooperatively, rather than in a rigid hierarchy, as scientists previously believed. The Scientists compare vision to an orchestra, where clusters of cells in different parts of the brain cooperate to process different components of visual information such as vertical or horizontal orientation, color, size, shape, movement, and distinctions between overlapping objects. The MIT research focused on an area of the cerebral cortex, the outer layer of gray matter that envelops the entire brain called the primary visual cortex, also known as V1 and Area 17 of the brain. In humans that area is about five centimeters in diameter, about the size of four postage stamps and a couple millimeters deep on both sides of the rear of the head, just below the crown. The V1 area is the first point of entry in the brain's cortex of visual information from the eye's retina. Earlier the V1 was thought to be involved only in processing very simple spatial orientations, such as whether an object is placed